Theories of psychological research

Theories of psychological research Humans are expected to deal with an immense amount of information whilst dealing with everyday complex tasks such as driving at high speeds in variable weather conditions and road conditions. Yet, research has shown that there is a limit to what humans can handle. It is well documented that human error on the road causes minor injury to fatal accidents and even damage. Treat et al (1977) calculated that human error is a major contributing factor in 90% of accidents and was also the only factor in 57% of accidents. This essay will consider two theories of psychological research on human memory. Attention and perception that can be used to assist understanding of the cause of human error on the roads. It will provide an overview of these two theories and the limitations in human information processing that contributes to accidents. It will also consider human error and how the research mentioned can be applied to minimise driver errors on the roads. It will conclude with a number of possibilities considered to reduce human error. Several studies noted that capacity of humans to process information is limited in capacity. Green(1991)research confirms that the flow of information whilst undertaking everyday tasks as driving is complex with the driver handling various information at the same time such as auditory and visual input vehicles, pedestrians, road signs, weather conditions. There is a continuous demand on the drivers memory who is also handling other auditory information such as talking to other passengers, listening to music, and recalling or recognising directions. Information processing theory is used to explain the importance of attention. Several studies show that accidents occur when the driver was focussed on something else. Several studies reveal that the driver can carry put all of the above tasks if visual and auditory input is low. However, if there is an increase in demand for attention when there is poor visibility or the driver is driving very fast, or driver is affected by fatigue or alcohol then attentional capacity is reduced. This limitation in capacity relates to bottleneck theories which suggests information enters the awareness one at a time whilst the information capacity theories propose information is processed through various channels, but each channel has a limited capacity. The driver does not have the capacity for inputs; they can only pay attention to certain number of information. Broadbent(1958),Treisman(1960) and Deutsch Deutsch(1963) put forward the theories of selective attention that remains influential, despite current theories focus on capacity theory, and the decay of information explained by Baddeley Hitch(1974). Broadbent Filter Model theory is based on Atkinson and Shiffrin multi-store memory model (1968) that explains memory processes and sequences stages; sensory, short-term and long term memory. The research confirms that the driver processes two types of stimulus. According to Broadbent the input comes through the filter and the other stimuli are held in a bottleneck for processing later. Baddeley Hitch (1974) working memory not only has limited capacity but also information decays, this gives limitation in regards to new information being held. There is some difficulty with Filter model Theory of attention. Cherry (1953) cocktail party effect experiment confirms the subject focuses attention on interesting stimuli whilst ignoring other stimulus. Again, Treisman (1960) proposed that if stimulus has meaning it can be processed, whilst Deutsch and Deutsch (1963) proposed that if stimulus needs to be responded to it can be selected later. The conclusion to be drawn from this, is that driver capacity to interact safely on the road is reduced and the possibility of human error increases because of the demands placed on attention. With such complex tasks as driving, information would not be retained or recalled, and as the capacity for inputs are limited the driver can only pay attention to certain pieces of information, so information which could be important could slip from memory. The issue remains of how to get drivers to focus their attention fully on the road. Human perception is another research area that can be applied to human error on the roads. Human perception is based on context and expectations the bottom up and top down approach. Several studies reveal that perceptual error jeopardise road safety. For example drivers often admit to not seeing visible information such as pedestrians crossing the road. In addition drivers misinterpret information such as speed or closeness to other vehicles. or drivers misread the speed or the closeness of other vehicles. Mack Rock (1992) researched visual perception of unexpected shapes whilst looking at it directly. This phenomenon is called inattentional blindness or perceptual blindness. This phenomenon occurs when subjects do not see visible objects in front of them. This can be for reasons such as overload of information or their attention is focussed on something else that has meaning, or no internal reference to the visible object. Simons, Chabris (2004) experiment on perception resulted in showing how subjects did not see an incident happening in front of them. This experiment involved participants playing basketball game and missing an unexpected appearance of someone dressed up in a white gorilla suit walk onto the ball court during the game. Subjects did not recall seeing the white gorilla. Scholl et al (2003) research also suggests that auditory input such as talking on mobile telephone can increase the opportunity of a subject failing to notice the unexpected and leading to increased human errors. This research on perception has implications for road safety, as drivers often report they did not see the pedestrian or car in front. The driver focus on what they expect to see top down processing rather than on the unexpected objects. This results in the likelihood of important and unexpected objects being missed. Neisser (1976) suggests that is not either or for humans. Perception involves both top down and bottom up processing becoming a perceptual cycle. Reason (1991) extensive research on human error defines error as circumstances in which planned action fail to achieve the desired outcome. Examples of this are stepping on the brakes too late and failing to stop at red traffic lights. Norman Shallice(1986) and Reason(1991)theory could be used to explain human error in driving tasks and knowledge. Norman and Shallice propose two types of control controlled control and automatic control. Controlled control being within awareness, but conscious and limited and automatic control out of awareness, creates automacity in tasks already rehearsed over a long period of time. This become out of awareness and is performed without effort like driving. Reason (1991) also suggests that there are 3 types of cognitive processes that cause errors. Skills based error or slips these consist of automatic action that was unconscious Rules based mistakes these consist of non-appliance of a heuristic to undertake a task Knowledge based conscious thought to solve a problem Finally Reason (2000) Swiss Cheese Model of human error can assist in understanding how road accident occurs. All slices of the cheese model have gaps which have to be aligned for an accident to occur. Thus a combination of factors can cause human error. To reduce the chance of accident road experts could use Reason model to identify the factors that contribute reducing unsafe acts such as talking on mobiles whilst driving, visible multiple cues, signals, colour coding, speed limits and road examinations are some of the examples observed to reduce road fatalities. Conclusion This essay has attempted to briefly explain the psychological research on memory that could be applied to the road. It concludes that this research on attention and perception can help to understand the cause of human errors on the road. However, memory research is still laboratory based, and opens to criticism regarding ecological validity. In deed human error is inevitable and getting humans to adapt their behaviour may prove challenging. References Treat,J,R, Tumbus,N,S,McDonald,S,T,Shinar,D,Hume,R,D,Mayer,R,E,Stanisfer,R,L and Castellan,N,J(1977) Tri-level study of the cause of traffic accidents report No.DOT-HS-034-3-535-7777(TAC) Green, M (1991) Visual Search, Visual streams and Visual architectures. Perception and Psychophysics, 50,388-403 Cherry, C (1958) some experiments in the recognition of speech with one and two ears, Journal of acoustical society of America, 25,975-979 Broadbent, D (1958) Perception and Communication London/New York, Pergamon Press Atkinson,R and Shiffrin,R(1968) Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes, In K,W Spence and J,T Spence(Eds) The psychology of learning motivation (vol2) London Academic press Baddeley,A Hitch,G (1974)Working memory in G Bower(Ed) The psychology of learning motivation(vol 8)pp.47-90 San Diego, Academic Press Treisman, A (1960) Contextual cues in selective listening. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12,242-248 Mack, A Rock, I (199 ) Inattentional Blindness Cambridge,MA,MIT Press Scholl,B Noles,N,Pashera,V,Sussman,R(2003) Talking on cellular phone dramatically increases sustained Inattentional blindness[abstract]Journal of vision,3(9):156,156a Simons,D Chabris,C(1999) Gorillas in our Midst: Sustained Inattentional blindness for dynamic events.Perception,28,1059-1071 Reason,J(2000) Human Error, Models and management, British Medical Journal,320 768-770 Norman,D,A,Shallice,T(1986) Attention to Action: Willed and automatic control of behaviour in R.J. Davidson,G.E Schwartz and D.Shapiro(Ed)The design of everyday living, New York, Doubleday Neisser(1976)Cognition and Reality San Francisco,CA,W.H Freeman

Mohamed Ali Essay -- essays research papers

Beginnings Clay, named after his father and Kentucky abolitionist Cassius M. Clay, was born in Louisville, Kentucky. At age 12, he had his bicycle stolen, and reported the fact to a local policeman (and boxing trainer), Joe Martin. Martin suggested that Clay learn to fight; under his guidance, Clay rapidly advanced through the youth ranks. A low achiever academically, Clay won six Kentucky Gold Gloves while at high school and was allowed to graduate despite his poor grades. Presciently, his principal announced during a staff meeting about the issue that Clay would someday be "this school's claim to fame." Clay later joked about his lackluster academic record saying, "I said I was the Greatest, not the smartest." At the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome, he won a gold medal as a light heavyweight boxer. He then turned professional under the tutelage of boxing legend Angelo Dundee and quickly became famous for his unorthodox style, his spectacular results, and his tireless self-promotion (the latter inspired in part by professional wrestler Gorgeous George and singer Little Richard). He made a name for himself as the "Louisville Slugger" by composing poems predicting in which round he would knock out his opponent. He boisterously sang his own praises, with sayings like "I am the greatest" and "I'm young, I'm pretty, I'm fast, and no one can beat me." In Louisville on October 29, 1960 Cassius Clay won his first professional fight. He won a six-round decision over Tunney Hunsaker, who was the police chief of Fayetteville, West Virginia. From 1960 to 1963, the young fighter amassed a record of 19-0 with 15 knockouts. He defeated such boxers as Tony Esperti, Jim Robinson, Donnie Fleeman, Duke Sabedong, Alonzo Johnson, George Logan, Willi Besmanoff, and Lamar Clark (who had won his previous 40 bouts by knockout). Among Clay's more impressive victories were against Sonny Banks (who knocked him down earlier in the bout), Alejandro Lavorante, and Archie Moore (a boxing legend who had won over 200 previous fights). Cassius became the number one contender for Sonny Liston's title. Liston was greatly feared, and some have said that he was the Mike Tyson of his era. Almost no one gave the young boxer a chance of beating Liston. The date was fixed for February 25, 1964; during the weigh-in, the boisterous Ali declared that he... ... Americans in Lebanon. In 1996, he had the honor of lighting the Olympic flame in Atlanta, Georgia. At the same Olympics, Ali was also presented with a replacement gold medal. He had supposedly thrown the previous one, won in 1960, into the Ohio River after being refused entry to a restaurant, confirming his own suspicions that even with a gold medal, he would not be treated any different in the South. His daughter Laila Ali also became a boxer in 1999 despite her father's earlier comments against female boxing in 1978: "Women are not made to be hit in the breast, and face like that... the body's not made to be punched right here [patting his chest]. Get hit in the breast... hard... and all that." The $60 million Muhammad Ali Center is scheduled to open in downtown Louisville, Kentucky in the Fall of 2005. In addition to displaying his boxing memorabilia, the center will focus on core themes of peace, social responsibility, respect, and personal growth. Muhammad Ali currently lives in Michigan. His current wife Lonnie Williams (his fourth) is also from Louisville. He has nine children: Maryum, Rasheeda, Jamillah, Hana, Laila, Khaliah, Miya, Muhammad Junior and Asaad. Mohamed Ali Essay -- essays research papers Beginnings Clay, named after his father and Kentucky abolitionist Cassius M. Clay, was born in Louisville, Kentucky. At age 12, he had his bicycle stolen, and reported the fact to a local policeman (and boxing trainer), Joe Martin. Martin suggested that Clay learn to fight; under his guidance, Clay rapidly advanced through the youth ranks. A low achiever academically, Clay won six Kentucky Gold Gloves while at high school and was allowed to graduate despite his poor grades. Presciently, his principal announced during a staff meeting about the issue that Clay would someday be "this school's claim to fame." Clay later joked about his lackluster academic record saying, "I said I was the Greatest, not the smartest." At the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome, he won a gold medal as a light heavyweight boxer. He then turned professional under the tutelage of boxing legend Angelo Dundee and quickly became famous for his unorthodox style, his spectacular results, and his tireless self-promotion (the latter inspired in part by professional wrestler Gorgeous George and singer Little Richard). He made a name for himself as the "Louisville Slugger" by composing poems predicting in which round he would knock out his opponent. He boisterously sang his own praises, with sayings like "I am the greatest" and "I'm young, I'm pretty, I'm fast, and no one can beat me." In Louisville on October 29, 1960 Cassius Clay won his first professional fight. He won a six-round decision over Tunney Hunsaker, who was the police chief of Fayetteville, West Virginia. From 1960 to 1963, the young fighter amassed a record of 19-0 with 15 knockouts. He defeated such boxers as Tony Esperti, Jim Robinson, Donnie Fleeman, Duke Sabedong, Alonzo Johnson, George Logan, Willi Besmanoff, and Lamar Clark (who had won his previous 40 bouts by knockout). Among Clay's more impressive victories were against Sonny Banks (who knocked him down earlier in the bout), Alejandro Lavorante, and Archie Moore (a boxing legend who had won over 200 previous fights). Cassius became the number one contender for Sonny Liston's title. Liston was greatly feared, and some have said that he was the Mike Tyson of his era. Almost no one gave the young boxer a chance of beating Liston. The date was fixed for February 25, 1964; during the weigh-in, the boisterous Ali declared that he... ... Americans in Lebanon. In 1996, he had the honor of lighting the Olympic flame in Atlanta, Georgia. At the same Olympics, Ali was also presented with a replacement gold medal. He had supposedly thrown the previous one, won in 1960, into the Ohio River after being refused entry to a restaurant, confirming his own suspicions that even with a gold medal, he would not be treated any different in the South. His daughter Laila Ali also became a boxer in 1999 despite her father's earlier comments against female boxing in 1978: "Women are not made to be hit in the breast, and face like that... the body's not made to be punched right here [patting his chest]. Get hit in the breast... hard... and all that." The $60 million Muhammad Ali Center is scheduled to open in downtown Louisville, Kentucky in the Fall of 2005. In addition to displaying his boxing memorabilia, the center will focus on core themes of peace, social responsibility, respect, and personal growth. Muhammad Ali currently lives in Michigan. His current wife Lonnie Williams (his fourth) is also from Louisville. He has nine children: Maryum, Rasheeda, Jamillah, Hana, Laila, Khaliah, Miya, Muhammad Junior and Asaad.

The Island of Lauropia

Secluded in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, is a place called Lauropia, a wonderful society. It is always peaceful and nothing bad ever happens on the island. The island's air is always fresh and free of any toxins or pollution. Temperature on the South side of Lauropia is always warm with no humidity present. On the North side of Lauropia the weather is always perfect for winter activities, the temperature is just cold enough for the snow to fall. The North side of the island is full of steep, snow-covered mountains that are perfect for skiing. On the South side of the Lauropia clean, sandy beaches cover the land. The ocean water is crystal clear and warm. Lauropia is the perfect place to live. On the island every person would be treated as an equal. No one person would think or act like they were better than someone else. There would be no racism present, all types of people would reside here and get along together. It wouldn't matter if you were African American, Caucasian, Asian, Spanish, Mexican or any other race each and every individual would treat each other the same. Whether a person was heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual wouldn't matter. Lauropians wouldn't judge each other by their appearance or whom they interacted with. There would be a diverse amount of different religions that would not criticize the other religions for their beliefs. Once a month all the different religions would get together at the island community building and congregate together to discuss their viewpoints and thoughts on each faith. The Lauropians would be involved in a wide variety of sports and leisure activities all year long. This would be made possible because of the extreme temperature differences on the North and South sides of the mountain. The North side would always be cold so the citizen could go skiing and snowboarding at the Lauropian Mountain Resort. The resort would offer a wide variety of different leveled slopes for the skiers on one half of the mountain. On the other half of the mountain there would be a Snowboard Park consisting of a slopes and half pipes strictly for the snowboarders. A snow tubing park would also be available for any whom has interest in snow tubing. There would family tubes and single tubes available for use. For all the snow mobilers on Lauropia, The Lauropian Mobile Park will be open for their riding enjoyment. All these activities and more on North Lauropia will have minimal charges to take advantage of the facilities. On the warm and sunny South Lauropia, the beaches will be clean and free of charge for all citizens. The beaches would have volleyball courts open to anyone. At the piers there would be docks where people could rent Jet Ski's, Speed Boats, Yachts, and Party Boats for their recreational pleasure. Sidewalks and paths would be on hand for Lauropians to roller blade, skateboard, ride bikes, and run, jog, or walk. Boating trips would also be available that take groups out in the middle of the ocean to scuba dive and snorkel. Throughout the whole island shopping centers, eateries, and sports complexes of all types will be accessible. Any store imaginable would exist for the Lauropians to shop for their wants and needs. The women would be in shopping heaven with the amount and variety of stores available to them. The amounts of places to eat would be incredible. They would range from places like Burger King and McDonalds, to Chi Chi's and Lone Star, to five star restaurants. Any type of food that a person had a craving for would be accessible. Sports Complexes would be placed all over the island for Lauropians to participate in any athletic event that they enjoyed. There would be football, baseball, field hockey, softball, soccer, and lacrosse fields. Indoor and outdoor courts for tennis players would be accessible. If there were any sports that a person or group of people would want to play and the facilities were not available the Lauropian Sports Board would do their best to make them available. The Lauropian Society would always try to make the island enjoyable for each person. Schooling would be one of the most important aspects of life on the island. It will be required for all citizens to start their education at elementary school level and continue up to collegiate level. It would not be required, but if the parents wanted to start sending their children to nursery or preschool the facilities would be open for use free of charge. All schooling on the island would be free of charge because education is of great importance to the people of Lauropia. The schools would administer the best education possible. There would be a large variety colleges available for students to choose from depending on their individual or dual major. If a person decided that they did not want to finish their schooling, being banished from the island would punish them. When and if the person decides they want to come back to island to finish their education the school board will have a meeting and decide if that certain person deserves to be let back on the island. On most occasions the student will be allowed to come back. Once a person graduates from college and gets a job, if they decide they want to go back to college to further their education, the company that they work for will usually give them funding for it. Students will be required to go to school for nine months out of the year. Altogether students would be required to attend seventeen years of schooling. In order to insure that the students would be getting an excellent education the teachers would have to take a Teaching Exam every five years. If the teachers fail to complete the requirements and the written section of the test they will not be permitted to teach for one year. After the period of time is up the teacher may retake the test and if he or she passes it, they will then be allowed to teach again. Teachers would also be required to go back to college annually and take two courses to broaden their knowledge. All measures would be taken that would be necessary to maintain the finest quality of education for Lauropians. The citizens of Lauropia would be able to make up their own laws and rules. Each year the members the government would sit down and revise the laws from the years before if necessary. Each community on Lauropia would have representatives that would go around and take ideas and thoughts on how the island could be changed and run to make it better place to live. Laws would never be passed if a large number of people on the island disagreed with them. The main concern that the government would have is the Lauropians happiness.

DBQ on Western Front Essay - 793 Words

DBQ: Settlement of the Western Frontier nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;During the years between 1840 and 1890, the land west of the Mississippi River experienced a wild and sporadic growth. The natural environment contributed greatly to this growth spurt and helped shape the development of the trans-Mississippi west. The natural environment dictated and facilitated the development of the west by way of determining who settled where, how the people survived, why people wanted to settle, and whether they were successful or not. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Many Americans packed few belongings and headed west during the middle to the late nineteenth century. It was during this time period that the idea of manifest destiny became rooted in†¦show more content†¦The landscape of the West was one without trees and other natural markings, water was scarce, and unpredictable weather changes often made life on the frontier difficult. Emigrants were often ignorant of the climate and made the voyage anyway, as seen in document C. The journey west was made by wagon. Food shortages and disease often plagued the emigrants. Also the unpredictable climate cause more hardships. The emigrants chose areas that they thought had the best land. The settlements were concentrated mostly along the coast because the middle was dessertious, as seen in document a. As a result of this picking and choosing of lands, families were often isolated, where the nearest family was often miles away. The natural environment determined what type of people settled in which places. Families looking to settle permanently and plant roots settled on the land best fit for farming. Young and adventurous emigrants looking to make a quick profit from speculating the land or mining it settled and developed quick cities. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The west was rich in natural minerals such as gold, silver, and coal. These natural resources and the prospect of making a quick profit brought many young men to the west. These emigrants were not looking to settle, but to make a quick profit and return home. Cities like Portland, San Antonio, and Denver practically grew overnight as people flocked to get their share of the gold, as seen in Document D and G. News ofShow MoreRelatedDbq on Western Front791 Words   |  4 PagesDBQ: Settlement of the Western Frontier During the years between 1840 and 1890, the land west of the Mississippi River experienced a wild and sporadic growth. The natural environment contributed greatly to this growth spurt and helped shape the development of the trans-Mississippi west. The natural environment dictated and facilitated the development of the west by way of determining who settled where, how the people survived, why people wanted to settle, and whether they were successful orRead MoreAp Exam Essays1660 Words   |  7 Pages1660s? 2. 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